Shares of small companies have been through a roller-coaster ride in , but an opportunity might be presenting itself soon — especially in small-cap value stocks. Small caps ripped higher early on this year as investors expected a rebound in the U. Value stocks are finally having their day, and that has meant great things for a host of long-maligned value exchange-traded funds ETFs. Up until last year, growth had spent more than a decade running up the score against value stocks.
However, onc. A new year brings new hope. Hope for a vaccine, hope for a stronger economy, and hope to get back to normal. One can also hope for another good year in the stock market! Unfortunately, hope is not a strategy. Instead try using the end of the year to. The text reproduced here is the Fourth Revised Edition, updated by Graham in and initially published in The numbered chapter notes are original to Graham—bolded text in these notes is by Jason Zweig.
I read the first edition of this book early in , when I was nineteen. I thought then that it was by far the best book about investing ever written. I still think it is. To invest successfully over a lifetime does not require a stratospheric IQ, unusual business insights, or inside information. This book precisely and clearly prescribes the proper framework. You must supply the emotional discipline. If you follow the behavioral and business principles that Graham advocates—and if you pay special attention to the invaluable advice in Chapters 8 and 20—you will not get a poor result from your investments.
That represents more of an accomplishment than you might think. Whether you achieve outstanding results will depend on the effort and intellect you apply to your investments, as well as on the amplitudes of stock-market folly that prevail during your investing career. Follow Graham and you will profit from folly rather than participate in it. To me, Ben Graham was far more than an author or a teacher. More than any other man except my father, he influenced my life. Several years ago Ben Graham, then almost eighty, expressed to a friend the thought that he hoped every day to do something foolish, something creative and something generous.
The inclusion of that first whimsical goal reflected his knack for packaging ideas in a form that avoided any overtones of sermonizing or self-importance. Although his ideas were powerful, their delivery was unfailingly gentle. Readers of this magazine need no elaboration of his achievements as measured by the standard of creativity. It is rare that the founder of a discipline does not find his work eclipsed in rather short order by successors. But over forty years after publication of the book that brought structure and logic to a disorderly and confused activity, it is difficult to think of possible candidates for even the runner-up position in the field of security analysis.
His counsel of soundness brought unfailing rewards to his followers—even to those with natural abilities inferior to more gifted practitioners who stumbled while following counsels of brilliance or fashion. It was, rather, the incidental by-product of an intellect whose breadth almost exceeded definition.
Certainly I have never met anyone with a mind of similar scope. Virtually total recall, unending fascination with new knowledge, and an ability to recast it in a form applicable to seemingly unrelated problems made exposure to his thinking in any field a delight. But his third imperative—generosity—was where he succeeded beyond all others. I knew Ben as my teacher, my employer, and my friend.
In each relationship—just as with all his students, employees, and friends—there was an absolutely open-ended, no-scores-kept generosity of ideas, time, and spirit. If clarity of thinking was required, there was no better place to go.
And if encouragement or counsel was needed, Ben was there. Walter Lippmann spoke of men who plant trees that other men will sit under. Ben Graham was such a man. Graham was not only one of the best investors who ever lived; he was also the greatest practical investment thinker of all time. Before Graham, money managers behaved much like a medieval guild, guided largely by superstition, guesswork, and arcane rituals. And The Intelligent Investor is the first book ever to describe, for individual investors, the emotional framework and analytical tools that are essential to financial success.
It remains the single best book on investing ever written for the general public. That October, U. Today, after the wild bull market of the late s and the brutal bear market that began in early , The Intelligent Investor reads more prophetically than ever. Graham came by his insights the hard way: by feeling firsthand the anguish of financial loss and by studying for decades the history and psychology of the markets. He was born Benjamin Grossbaum on May 9, , in London; his father was a dealer in china dishes and figurines.
At first they lived the good life—with a maid, a cook, and a French governess—on upper Fifth Avenue. For the rest of his life, Ben would recall the humiliation of cashing a check for his mother and hearing the bank teller ask, Is Dorothy Grossbaum good for five dollars? Fortunately, Graham won a scholarship at Columbia, where his brilliance burst into full flower.
He graduated in , second in his class. He was all of 20 years old. Instead of academia, Graham decided to give Wall Street a shot. He started as a clerk at a bond-trading firm, soon became an analyst, then a partner, and before long was running his own investment partnership. The Internet boom and bust would not have surprised Graham. Graham became a master at researching stocks in microscopic, almost molecular, detail.
In , plowing through the obscure reports filed by oil pipelines with the U. How did Graham do it? Combining his extraordinary intellectual powers with profound common sense and vast experience, Graham developed his core principles, which are at least as valid today as they were during his lifetime:. A stock is not just a ticker symbol or an electronic blip; it is an ownership interest in an actual business, with an underlying value that does not depend on its share price.
The market is a pendulum that forever swings between unsustainable optimism which makes stocks too expensive and unjustified pessimism which makes them too cheap.
The intelligent investor is a realist who sells to optimists and buys from pessimists. The future value of every investment is a function of its present price. The higher the price you pay, the lower your return will be. No matter how careful you are, the one risk no investor can ever eliminate is the risk of being wrong. Only by insisting on what Graham called the margin of safety —never overpaying, no matter how exciting an investment seems to be—can you minimize your odds of error.
The secret to your financial success is inside yourself. If you become a critical thinker who takes no Wall Street fact on faith, and you invest with patient confidence, you can take steady advantage of even the worst bear markets. In the end, how your investments behave is much less important than how you behave. Like all classics, it alters how we view the world and renews itself by educating us.
And the more you read it, the better it gets. With Graham as your guide, you are guaranteed to become a vastly more intelligent investor.
T he purpose of this book is to supply, in a form suitable for laymen, guidance in the adoption and execution of an investment policy. We shall, however, provide a number of condensed comparisons of specific securities—chiefly in pairs appearing side by side in the New York Stock Exchange list—in order to bring home in concrete fashion the important elements involved in specific choices of common stocks.
But much of our space will be devoted to the historical patterns of financial markets, in some cases running back over many decades. No statement is more true and better applicable to Wall Street than the famous warning of Santayana: Those who do not remember the past are condemned to repeat it. Our text is directed to investors as distinguished from speculators, and our first task will be to clarify and emphasize this now all but forgotten distinction.
We may say at the outset that this is not a how to make a million book. There are no sure and easy paths to riches on Wall Street or anywhere else. It may be well to point up what we have just said by a bit of financial history—especially since there is more than one moral to be drawn from it. In the climactic year John J.
If the General Motors tycoon was right, this was indeed a simple road to riches. How nearly right was he? This record may be regarded as a persuasive argument for the principle of regular monthly purchases of strong common stocks through thick and thin—a program known as dollar-cost averaging.
Since our book is not addressed to speculators, it is not meant for those who trade in the market. Most of these people are guided by charts or other largely mechanical means of determining the right moments to buy and sell.
The one principle that applies to nearly all these so-called technical approaches is that one should buy because a stock or the market has gone up and one should sell because it has declined.
This is the exact opposite of sound business sense everywhere else, and it is most unlikely that it can lead to lasting success on Wall Street. In our own stock-market experience and observation, extending over 50 years, we have not known a single person who has consistently or lastingly made money by thus following the market.
We do not hesitate to declare that this approach is as fallacious as it is popular. We shall illustrate what we have just said—though, of course this should not be taken as proof—by a later brief discussion of the famous Dow theory for trading in the stock market.
Since its first publication in , revisions of The Intelligent Investor have appeared at intervals of approximately five years. In updating the current version we shall have to deal with quite a number of new developments since the edition was written.
These include:. This was the highest percentage decline in some 30 years. Countless issues of lower quality had a much larger shrinkage. The rapid development of conglomerate companies, franchise operations, and other relative novelties in business and finance.
Bankruptcy of our largest railroad, excessive short- and long-term debt of many formerly strongly entrenched companies, and even a disturbing problem of solvency among Wall Street houses. The advent of the performance vogue in the management of investment funds, including some bank-operated trust funds, with disquieting results.
These phenomena will have our careful consideration, and some will require changes in conclusions and emphasis from our previous edition. The underlying principles of sound investment should not alter from decade to decade, but the application of these principles must be adapted to significant changes in the financial mechanisms and climate. The last statement was put to the test during the writing of the present edition, the first draft of which was finished in January At that time the DJIA was in a strong recovery from its low of and was advancing toward a high of , with attendant general optimism.
As the last draft was finished, in November , the market was in the throes of a new decline, carrying it down to with a renewed general uneasiness about its future.
We have not allowed these fluctuations to affect our general attitude toward sound investment policy, which remains substantially unchanged since the first edition of this book in This was that leading common stocks could be bought at any time and at any price, with the assurance not only of ultimate profit but also that any intervening loss would soon be recouped by a renewed advance of the market to new high levels. That was too good to be true.
At long last the stock market has returned to normal, in the sense that both speculators and stock investors must again be prepared to experience significant and perhaps protracted falls as well as rises in the value of their holdings.
In the area of many secondary and third-line common stocks, especially recently floated enterprises, the havoc wrought by the last market break was catastrophic. This was nothing new in itself—it had happened to a similar degree in —62—but there was now a novel element in the fact that some of the investment funds had large commitments in highly speculative and obviously overvalued issues of this type. Evidently it is not only the tyro who needs to be warned that while enthusiasm may be necessary for great accomplishments elsewhere, on Wall Street it almost invariably leads to disaster.
The major question we shall have to deal with grows out of the huge rise in the rate of interest on first-quality bonds. Since late the investor has been able to obtain more than twice as much income from such bonds as he could from dividends on representative common stocks. At the beginning of the return was 7. This compares with 4. It is hard to realize that when we first wrote this book in the figures were almost the exact opposite: the bonds returned only 2.
We must now consider whether the current great advantage of bond yields over stock yields would justify an all-bond policy until a more sensible relationship returns, as we expect it will.
Naturally the question of continued inflation will be of great importance in reaching our decision here. A chapter will be devoted to this discussion. In the past we have made a basic distinction between two kinds of investors to whom this book was addressed—the defensive and the enterprising. The defensive or passive investor will place his chief emphasis on the avoidance of serious mistakes or losses.
His second aim will be freedom from effort, annoyance, and the need for making frequent decisions. The determining trait of the enterprising or active, or aggressive investor is his willingness to devote time and care to the selection of securities that are both sound and more attractive than the average. Over many decades an enterprising investor of this sort could expect a worthwhile reward for his extra skill and effort, in the form of a better average return than that realized by the passive investor.
But next year or the years after may well be different. We shall accordingly continue to devote attention to the possibilities for enterprising investment, as they existed in former periods and may return. It has long been the prevalent view that the art of successful investment lies first in the choice of those industries that are most likely to grow in the future and then in identifying the most promising companies in these industries.
For example, smart investors—or their smart advisers—would long ago have recognized the great growth possibilities of the computer industry as a whole and of International Business Machines in particular. And similarly for a number of other growth industries and growth companies.
But this is not as easy as it always looks in retrospect. To bring this point home at the outset let us add here a paragraph that we included first in the edition of this book. Such an investor may for example be a buyer of air-transport stocks because he believes their future is even more brilliant than the trend the market already reflects.
For this class of investor the value of our book will lie more in its warnings against the pitfalls lurking in this favorite investment approach than in any positive technique that will help him along his path.
The pitfalls have proved particularly dangerous in the industry we mentioned. It was, of course, easy to forecast that the volume of air traffic would grow spectacularly over the years.
Because of this factor their shares became a favorite choice of the investment funds. But despite the expansion of revenues—at a pace even greater than in the computer industry—a combination of technological problems and overexpansion of capacity made for fluctuating and even disastrous profit figures. They had shown losses also in and The stocks of these companies once again showed a greater decline in —70 than did the general market. The record shows that even the highly paid full-time experts of the mutual funds were completely wrong about the fairly short-term future of a major and nonesoteric industry.
Hence the effect of this excellent choice on their overall results was by no means decisive. Furthermore, many—if not most—of their investments in computer-industry companies other than IBM appear to have been unprofitable. From these two broad examples we draw two morals for our readers:. Obvious prospects for physical growth in a business do not translate into obvious profits for investors. The experts do not have dependable ways of selecting and concentrating on the most promising companies in the most promising industries.
The author did not follow this approach in his financial career as fund manager, and he cannot offer either specific counsel or much encouragement to those who may wish to try it. What then will we aim to accomplish in this book? Our main objective will be to guide the reader against the areas of possible substantial error and to develop policies with which he will be comfortable. We shall say quite a bit about the psychology of investors.
The fault, dear investor, is not in our stars—and not in our stocks—but in ourselves…. This has proved the more true over recent decades as it has become more necessary for conservative investors to acquire common stocks and thus to expose themselves, willy-nilly, to the excitement and the temptations of the stock market. By arguments, examples, and exhortation, we hope to aid our readers to establish the proper mental and emotional attitudes toward their investment decisions. We have seen much more money made and kept by ordinary people who were temperamentally well suited for the investment process than by those who lacked this quality, even though they had an extensive knowledge of finance, accounting, and stock-market lore.
Additionally, we hope to implant in the reader a tendency to measure or quantify. For 99 issues out of we could say that at some price they are cheap enough to buy and at some other price they would be so dear that they should be sold. The habit of relating what is paid to what is being offered is an invaluable trait in investment. The really dreadful losses of the past few years and on many similar occasions before were realized in those common-stock issues where the buyer forgot to ask How much?
In June the question How much? This has now dropped to about 7. But there are other possible answers, and these must be carefully considered. Besides which, we repeat that both we and our readers must be prepared in advance for the possibly quite different conditions of, say, — We shall therefore present in some detail a positive program for common-stock investment, part of which is within the purview of both classes of investors and part is intended mainly for the enterprising group.
Strangely enough, we shall suggest as one of our chief requirements here that our readers limit themselves to issues selling not far above their tangible-asset value. Experience has taught us that, while there are many good growth companies worth several times net assets, the buyer of such shares will be too dependent on the vagaries and fluctuations of the stock market. By contrast, the investor in shares, say, of public-utility companies at about their net-asset value can always consider himself the owner of an interest in sound and expanding businesses, acquired at a rational price—regardless of what the stock market might say to the contrary.
The ultimate result of such a conservative policy is likely to work out better than exciting adventures into the glamorous and dangerous fields of anticipated growth. The art of investment has one characteristic that is not generally appreciated. A creditable, if unspectacular, result can be achieved by the lay investor with a minimum of effort and capability; but to improve this easily attainable standard requires much application and more than a trace of wisdom.
If you merely try to bring just a little extra knowledge and cleverness to bear upon your investment program, instead of realizing a little better than normal results, you may well find that you have done worse. Since anyone—by just buying and holding a representative list—can equal the performance of the market averages, it would seem a comparatively simple matter to beat the averages ; but as a matter of fact the proportion of smart people who try this and fail is surprisingly large. Even the majority of the investment funds, with all their experienced personnel, have not performed so well over the years as has the general market.
Allied to the foregoing is the record of the published stock-market predictions of the brokerage houses, for there is strong evidence that their calculated forecasts have been somewhat less reliable than the simple tossing of a coin.
In writing this book we have tried to keep this basic pitfall of investment in mind. The virtues of a simple portfolio policy have been emphasized—the purchase of high-grade bonds plus a diversified list of leading common stocks—which any investor can carry out with a little expert assistance.
The adventure beyond this safe and sound territory has been presented as fraught with challenging difficulties, especially in the area of temperament. Before attempting such a venture the investor should feel sure of himself and of his advisers—particularly as to whether they have a clear concept of the differences between investment and speculation and between market price and underlying value.
A strong-minded approach to investment, firmly based on the margin-of-safety principle, can yield handsome rewards. But a decision to try for these emoluments rather than for the assured fruits of defensive investment should not be made without much self-examination. A final retrospective thought. When the young author entered Wall Street in June no one had any inkling of what the next half-century had in store.
The stock market did not even suspect that a World War was to break out in two months, and close down the New York Stock Exchange. Now, in , we find ourselves the richest and most powerful country on earth, but beset by all sorts of major problems and more apprehensive than confident of the future.
Yet if we confine our attention to American investment experience, there is some comfort to be gleaned from the last 57 years. Through all their vicissitudes and casualties, as earth-shaking as they were unforeseen, it remained true that sound investment principles produced generally sound results.
We must act on the assumption that they will continue to do so. Note to the Reader: This book does not address itself to the overall financial policy of savers and investors; it deals only with that portion of their funds which they are prepared to place in marketable or redeemable securities, that is, in bonds and stocks. Consequently we do not discuss such important media as savings and time deposits, savings-and-loan-association accounts, life insurance, annuities, and real-estate mortgages or equity ownership.
The reader should bear in mind that when he finds the word now, or the equivalent, in the text, it refers to late or early If you have built castles in the air, your work need not be lost; that is where they should be. Now put the foundations under them. Notice that Graham announces from the start that this book will not tell you how to beat the market. No truthful book can. Back in the boom years of the late s, when technology stocks seemed to be doubling in value every day, the notion that you could lose almost all your money seemed absurd.
But no matter how careful you are, the price of your investments will go down from time to time. While no one can eliminate that risk, Graham will show you how to manage it—and how to get your fears under control. What exactly does Graham mean by an intelligent investor? Back in the first edition of this book, Graham defines the term—and he makes it clear that this kind of intelligence has nothing to do with IQ or SAT scores.
It simply means being patient, disciplined, and eager to learn; you must also be able to harness your emotions and think for yourself. This kind of intelligence, explains Graham, is a trait more of the character than of the brain.
But the bond market kept right on becoming more and more abnormal—and LTCM had borrowed so much money that its collapse nearly capsized the global financial system. Sensing that the market was getting out of hand, the great physicist muttered that he could calculate the motions of the heavenly bodies, but not the madness of the people.
For the rest of his life, he forbade anyone to speak the words South Sea in his presence. Sir Isaac Newton was one of the most intelligent people who ever lived, as most of us would define intelligence. There you can master his lesson that being an intelligent investor is more a matter of character than brain. The worst market crash since the Great Depression, with U.
Accusations of massive financial fraud at some of the largest and most respected corporations in America, including Enron, Tyco, and Xerox. Allegations that accounting firms cooked the books, and even destroyed records, to help their clients mislead the investing public. Charges that top executives at leading companies siphoned off hundreds of millions of dollars for their own personal gain. Proof that security analysts on Wall Street praised stocks publicly but admitted privately that they were garbage.
A stock market that, even after its bloodcurdling decline, seems overvalued by historical measures, suggesting to many experts that stocks have further yet to fall.
A relentless decline in interest rates that has left investors with no attractive alternative to stocks. An investing environment bristling with the unpredictable menace of global terrorism and war in the Middle East. Much of this damage could have been and was! As Graham puts it, while enthusiasm may be necessary for great accomplishments elsewhere, on Wall Street it almost invariably leads to disaster.
By letting themselves get carried away—on Internet stocks, on big growth stocks, on stocks as a whole—many people made the same stupid mistakes as Sir Isaac Newton. Many of those people got especially carried away on technology and Internet stocks, believing the high-tech hype that this industry would keep outgrowing every other for years to come, if not forever:. In mid, after earning a After his Amerindo Technology Fund rose an incredible Then go with someone else.
In February , hedge-fund manager James J. Cramer proclaimed that Internet-related companies are the only ones worth owning right now. These winners of the new world, as he called them, are the only ones that are going higher consistently in good days and bad.
Cramer even took a potshot at Graham: You have to throw out all of the matrices and formulas and texts that existed before the Web…. While it seems easy to foresee which industry will grow the fastest, that foresight has no real value if most other investors are already expecting the same thing. By the time everyone decides that a given industry is obviously the best one to invest in, the prices of its stocks have been bid up so high that its future returns have nowhere to go but down.
But make sure you remember this: The people who now claim that the next sure thing will be health care, or energy, or real estate, or gold, are no more likely to be right in the end than the hypesters of high tech turned out to be.
The pendulum has swung, as Graham knew it always does, from irrational exuberance to unjustifiable pessimism. The same people who were eager to buy stocks in the late s—when they were going up in price and, therefore, becoming expensive—sold stocks as they went down in price and, by definition, became cheaper.
As Graham shows so brilliantly in Chapter 8, this is exactly backwards. The intelligent investor realizes that stocks become more risky, not less, as their prices rise—and less risky, not more, as their prices fall. The intelligent investor dreads a bull market, since it makes stocks more costly to buy. And conversely so long as you keep enough cash on hand to meet your spending needs , you should welcome a bear market, since it puts stocks back on sale.
So take heart: The death of the bull market is not the bad news everyone believes it to be. Thanks to the decline in stock prices, now is a considerably safer—and saner—time to be building wealth. Read on, and let Graham show you how. This chapter will outline the viewpoints that will be set forth in the remainder of the book. In particular we wish to develop at the outset our concept of appropriate portfolio policy for the individual, nonprofessional investor. What do we mean by investor?
Throughout this book the term will be used in contradistinction to speculator. Operations not meeting these requirements are speculative. While we have clung tenaciously to this definition over the ensuing 38 years, it is worthwhile noting the radical changes that have occurred in the use of the term investor during this period.
After the great market decline of — all common stocks were widely regarded as speculative by nature. A leading authority stated flatly that only bonds could be bought for investment. Now our concern is of the opposite sort. We must prevent our readers from accepting the common jargon which applies the term investor to anybody and everybody in the stock market.
In our last edition we cited the following headline of a front-page article of our leading financial journal in June In October the same journal had an editorial critical of what it called reckless investors, who this time were rushing in on the buying side.
These quotations well illustrate the confusion that has been dominant for many years in the use of the words investment and speculation. Think of our suggested definition of investment given above, and compare it with the sale of a few shares of stock by an inexperienced member of the public, who does not even own what he is selling, and has some largely emotional conviction that he will be able to buy them back at a much lower price.
It is not irrelevant to point out that when the article appeared the market had already experienced a decline of major size, and was now getting ready for an even greater upswing.
It was about as poor a time as possible for selling short. In a more general sense, the later-used phrase reckless investors could be regarded as a laughable contradiction in terms—something like spendthrift misers —were this misuse of language not so mischievous. The newspaper employed the word investor in these instances because, in the easy language of Wall Street, everyone who buys or sells a security has become an investor, regardless of what he buys, or for what purpose, or at what price, or whether for cash or on margin.
The distinction between investment and speculation in common stocks has always been a useful one and its disappearance is a cause for concern. We have often said that Wall Street as an institution would be well advised to reinstate this distinction and to emphasize it in all its dealings with the public.
Otherwise the stock exchanges may some day be blamed for heavy speculative losses, which those who suffered them had not been properly warned against. Ironically, once more, much of the recent financial embarrassment of some stock-exchange firms seems to have come from the inclusion of speculative common stocks in their own capital funds.
What we have just said indicates that there may no longer be such a thing as a simon-pure investment policy comprising representative common stocks—in the sense that one can always wait to buy them at a price that involves no risk of a market or quotational loss large enough to be disquieting. In most periods the investor must recognize the existence of a speculative factor in his common-stock holdings. It is his task to keep this component within minor limits, and to be prepared financially and psychologically for adverse results that may be of short or long duration.
Two paragraphs should be added about stock speculation per se, as distinguished from the speculative component now inherent in most representative common stocks. Outright speculation is neither illegal, immoral, nor for most people fattening to the pocketbook. More than that, some speculation is necessary and unavoidable, for in many common-stock situations there are substantial possibilities of both profit and loss, and the risks therein must be assumed by someone.
But there are many ways in which speculation may be unintelligent. Of these the foremost are: 1 speculating when you think you are investing; 2 speculating seriously instead of as a pastime, when you lack proper knowledge and skill for it; and 3 risking more money in speculation than you can afford to lose.
And everyone who buys a so-called hot common-stock issue, or makes a purchase in any way similar thereto, is either speculating or gambling.
Speculation is always fascinating, and it can be a lot of fun while you are ahead of the game. If you want to try your luck at it, put aside a portion—the smaller the better—of your capital in a separate fund for this purpose. Never add more money to this account just because the market has gone up and profits are rolling in.
Never mingle your speculative and investment operations in the same account, nor in any part of your thinking. We have already defined the defensive investor as one interested chiefly in safety plus freedom from bother. In general what course should he follow and what return can he expect under average normal conditions —if such conditions really exist? The dividend return on leading common stocks with the DJIA at was only about 3. This fact, and others, suggested caution. This is a list of monsters, mythical, legendary, and fictional.
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